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Particulate matter pollution observed a very large decrease during the outbreak in comparison to its pollution between October—December only. Opposite to Guangzhou, the average AQI and concentration of most air pollutants in Harbin were significantly higher during the outbreak than before the outbreak for all of Only ozone concentration was significantly lower during the lockdown when compared to the concentrations between April to June Particulate matter pollution during the lockdown had no statistically significant difference with its pollution between January to March Given that Harbin experiences extreme winter, PM 2.
This has been noted in some previous studies [ 27 ]. In light of this fact, we can deduce the shutdown had no significant effect decrease on particulate pollution since no statistical difference was observed when compared to January—March The decrease was significantly different in comparison to concentration levels between January to March For comparison with concentration levels between April to September , only ozone showed a significant difference.
In Shenzhen, air quality during the outbreak was only significantly different for comparison to categories B and C. The indicator for the air quality during the outbreak was more or less the same as all January to March periods. Other air pollutants were higher during the outbreak than before it. Overall, the following changes in air quality were observed.
The concentration levels for indicators of traffic-related air pollution NO 2 and CO were remarkably reduced in most cities during the outbreak. The major reason for this amount of decrease is that the restriction on the outdoor movement led to fewer cars being on the road, directly resulting in lesser emission of these pollutants.
In a preliminary analysis, National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASA researchers compared NO 2 concentration in early with the average concentration detected at the time of year from — The lockdown ultimately caused a large percentage of these cars to be off the road. The decrease in traffic-related air pollution has several health advantages, many of which are related to respiratory wellness given that pollutants such as NO 2 are absorbed entirely along the entire respiratory tract and are deposited peripherally in the lungs.
The pollutant also amplifies the asthmatic response to allergen exposure. Therefore, a drastic reduction in traffic pollution is of great health benefits to both healthy and compromised individuals. Since industrial activities such as oil shale mining, power generation, steel mining, etc.
A major indicator of industrial pollution SO 2 also noticed a moderate reduction in concentration level during the outbreak. Satellite imagery shows cities such as Shanghai and Wuhan noted a Although moderate, the decrease in SO 2 is advantageous to health and the economy.
According to Zen et al. Therefore, any decrease noted from its major constituent will directly or indirectly lower medical budgets [ 34 ]. Regarding health, residents of industrial areas more frequently reported wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, hypertension, heart diseases, etc.
In contrast, particulate pollution, especially PM 2. The study by Silver et al. This is understandable, given that the combustion of coals for heating purposes and the use of indoor burners did not stop during the shutdown. Additionally, the secondary particulate matter, which is generated from reactions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, was still emitted, even though their sources were reduced.
Hence, a fairly high concentration of particulates in the atmosphere was maintained during the entire period of the shutdown. In as much as every decrease in particulate matter pollution is seen as positive, a difference in health can only be achieved if concentration levels are within the recommended health limits. At or above these levels, particulates can penetrate the bloodstream, lungs, tissues, and other organs, causing a wide range of adverse health effects.
According to Cohen et al. Unlike other air pollutants, ozone noted a consistent increase though small in most cities during the lockdown. Given that it is a secondary pollutant from solar radiation and NO x , it would be expected that a decrease in NO 2 would also facilitate a decrease in ozone. Unfortunately, this was not the case. This outcome does not favor the public, especially the elderly, given that the effect of ozone has been established to be more prominent in this category of people.
Its adverse effect on health ranges from mild respiratory illnesses to circulatory diseases to chronic disorders [ 3 ]. The study has strengths and limitations. This is a novel study describing the impact a major event or occurrence can have on the air. In plain terms, the study highlights the effect of daily activities such as the use of vehicles on air quality. The study creates a window of opportunities for different related studies for example, understanding the health implications of the change in air quality.
Aside from its strength, the study is limited in few aspects. Firstly, all cities in the study did not commence the shutdown on the same date and with the same intensity. Secondly, the analysis only describes the quality of air in these cities; the data were not correlated with health data to assess exposure risk.
In conclusion, there was a difference in air quality an improvement for some cities during the outbreak, indicating that the shutdown positively affected the air quality status in these cities.
Exploration of individual air pollutants further revealed that the kind of event or circumstance will determine which air pollutants concentration increases or decreases. Hence, there is a need for more observations of air quality during certain periods for example, festive seasons to determine strategies that will be useful in curtailing the emission of air pollutants.
The research team would like to acknowledge the environmental monitoring stations within each city for supporting the study with its data resources. Conceptualization, C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
This research did not receive grants from any funding agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Published online Mar Benoit Nemery, Academic Editor. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Jan 20; Accepted Mar Associated Data Supplementary Materials ijerphs Abstract Over the past decades, urbanization and industrialization have led to a change in air quality, bringing researchers to a full realization of the damaging effects of human activities on the environment.
Introduction In the last three decades, the level of pollution in China has increased exponentially due to extensive urbanization and mass industrialization. Materials and Methods 2. Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Statistical Analysis The main statistical test employed was the independent samples t -test. First Phase: Data Categorization To categorize the data into meaningful groups, the time of the year during which the outbreak occurred and the seasons winter, autumn, spring, and summer observed in China were taken into consideration.
The entire data retrieved from January to March was divided into five categories as follows: Category A—1 month to 3 months before the outbreak October to December ; Category B—3 months to 6 months before the outbreak July to September ; Category C—6 months to 9 months before the outbreak April to June ; Category D—9 months to 12 months before the outbreak January to March ; Category K constant —during the outbreak January to March Second Phase: Descriptive Analysis A descriptive analysis gives a summary of the data.
Third Phase: Independent t -Test Analysis The independent t -test, also referred to as the two-sample t -test, is an inferential statistical analysis that determines if there is a statistically significant difference between the means of two unrelated groups. Fourth Phase: Estimation of Effect Size For further assurance that the differences observed from the t -test are reliable, the effect size i.
Results 3. In addition, cities risk revenue losses. Energy-guzzling factories that are shut down, in many cases, can't be immediately offset by low-carbon industries that are still in their nascent stage.
Moreover, the switch from traditional industries to green businesses claims jobs, at least for a short term. While cement makers can hire people with few skills, solar panel producers can't. The goal for Chongqing, which is nestled in the mountains of less-developed western China, may be the most ambitious of them all.
One expert even puts it in this way:. The dark side of a manufacturing tradition. Chongqing's challenge is deeply rooted in its past. Back in the late s, the city was the wartime capital of China. Thousands of factories moved from Japanese-occupied eastern regions to inland Chongqing, quickly turning it into an industrial city. Factories multiplied again in the s. Chongqing is trying to provide clean drinking water and waste treatment for millions of residents. Chongqing, China — June 19, - Chongqing is a booming metropolis -- China's largest inland city -- at the confluence of the Yangtze and the Jialing rivers.
Thirty-two million people live in Chongqing municipality— about 6 million in the city proper and the rest in outlying towns and rural areas. Urban growth has brought a wealth of new opportunities but also created new challenges for the sprawling municipality. Severe air pollution forced authorities to relocate the most toxic factories outside the city center a few years back. Fixing the city center's garbage and sewage problems became crucial in the late s as migrants and new businesses settled here in great numbers.
Until recently, the city's domestic and industrial sewage was discharged directly into the Jialing and the Yangtze rivers through over outlets. Starting in , a World Bank-financed project backed the construction of a vast collection network intercepting sewage before it pollutes the rivers and channeling it towards two new large wastewater treatment plants a few kilometers from the city center. More than , cubic meters of wastewater are now treated each day. A second project component tackled the issue of solid waste.
In the past, garbage was piled up in unsanitary open sites around the city. At times, it was even dumped unceremoniously into the rivers. A modern landfill now processes from 1, to 2, metric tons of garbage per day. The new landfill is an impressive sight - a vast plateau of compacted waste covered in layers of soil and tarp that minimize the smell in the hilly suburbs of Chongqing.
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